Boron-oxide and related compounds for hydrogen storage

ABSTRACT

A hydrogen storage medium is provided, where the medium is comprised of boron oxide and closely related compounds such as orthoboric acid, metaboric acid, hydrated boric acid, and disodium borohydrate. The medium is substantially an amorphous glassy network, albeit with local regions of order, pores, and networks that provide surface area. Hydrogen is adsorbed by the medium with a heat of adsorption of about 9 kJ/mol to about 13 kJ/mol, a value which is higher than that of the heat of adsorption of hydrogen on carbon. The value for the heat of adsorption of hydrogen on the inventive storage medium is provided by computation, and corroborated by experimental observation. The higher heat of adsorption of the medium provides for operation at temperatures higher temperatures higher than those provided by carbon. Further provided are methods by which the storage medium can be prepared in such a form so as to permit high capacity hydrogen storage, as well as an apparatus, with the inventive medium disposed therein, for storing hydrogen.

DOMESTIC PRIORITY CLAIM

The priority of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/404,588, filed Aug.19, 2002, is claimed.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates generally to hydrogen storage systems, morespecifically, to storage of hydrogen in a medium that comprises boronoxide and related compounds.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

There is considerable interest in hydrogen as a replacement for fossilfuels because of its high energy density per unit weight, its readilyavailability through the electrolysis of water, and the absence ofpolluting byproducts from its use. A number of technological componentsrepresent challenges in making this transition from fossil fuels tohydrogen, and in the development of appropriate systems andinfrastructure that can integrate into those that already exist. Aparticular challenge of the developing hydrogen economy and theautomotive industry thus involves the current paucity of fullysatisfactory systems for hydrogen storage, ones that are safe, reliable,conformable, light-weight, and comprehensively economic. Thetechnological issues underlying various approaches to hydrogen storageinclude the form within which hydrogen is stored, the nature of themedium holding the hydrogen, and the operation of the containers holdingthe medium.

Holding hydrogen as a compressed gas and as a cryogenic liquid are themost traditional forms of hydrogen storage. Compressed hydrogen can bestored in high pressure tanks (up to 10,000 p.s.i.). A problem with thismethod is that hydrogen diffuses very effectively, particularly whenunder high pressure, and currently available high pressure tanks do noteffectively prevent such diffusion over an extended period of time. Therequirement that tank materials be lightweight, and the fact that tankfailure or damage in the event of an accident would be catastrophicprovides further reason for pause. Storage of hydrogen in liquid form atcryogenic temperatures is also an approach that shows some promise.

Metal hydrides, such as magnesium-based alloys, have also been used asmedia to store hydrogen. Although this method does not require highpressure and is operable at room temperature, there are other drawbacks.Metal hydrides are heavy, generally heavier than the hydrogen gas by afactor of about 50. Metal hydrides also undesirably contaminate thehydrogen as it is released. Further, metal hydride storage is notenergy-efficient in this context; the energy required to extract thehydrogen from the metal hydride is equivalent to nearly half the amountstored within it. Metal hydride storage has been disclosed by Liu et al.(U.S. Pat. No. 4,358,316), by Bernauer et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 4,446,101),and by Ovshinsky et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 6,328,821).

Activated carbon has been used to store hydrogen at cryogenictemperatures and moderate pressures (50–70 bar), as has been describedby Schwarz (U.S. Pat. No. 4,716,736). Cryogenic storage in activatedcarbon can be done at a 80 K, a temperature higher than that requiredfor liquid hydrogen storage. Hydrogen can sorb to surfaces in theactivated carbon and can be released by increasing the temperature.Commonly available activated carbon, however, is not very pure, andcontaminants are released with the hydrogen. Many researchers have foundthat it is difficult to obtain release of all hydrogen stored onactivated carbon. Other problems associated with activated carboninclude low weight percent storage capacity and the need to maintaincryogenic temperatures. Some of these problems have been discussed byHynek et al. 1997,in “Hydrogen storage by carbon sorption,” Int. J.Hydrogen Energy, 22, No. 6, 601.

Alternative forms of carbon for hydrogen storage that are being exploredinclude carbon nanotubes and graphite fibers, which, according toRodriguez et al. (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,653,951 and 6,159,538), sorb hydrogenby chemisorption. Another approach using nanostructured materials, inthis case comprised of light elements, is one in which hydrogen is boundby physisorption, as described in pending patent applications of Bradleyet al. (U.S. application Ser. No. 60/020,392) and Kwon et al. (U.S.application Ser. No. 60/020,344). Other carbon-based approaches includethe utilization of turbostratic microstructures, as described by Maeland(U.S. Pat. No. 6,290,753) and aerogel preparations of carbon fullerenes,as described by Lamb (U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,140). While structured formsof carbon offer advantages over non-structured activated carbon, thebasic thermodynamic properties of carbon which determine the lowoperating temperatures at which hydrogen is desorbed from the mediumremain the same.

Hydrogen storage and supply systems that operate at higher temperaturesand lower pressures than those currently available are an important andas yet undeveloped component of the developing hydrogen economy. Porousstorage media represent a realistic approach to the development of suchsystems, and thus there is an acute need for materials which offer highcapacity and favorable operating conditions of temperature and pressure.It is further desirable that such media be manufacturable economically,and at industrial scale.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with the embodiments of the present invention, a mediumfor storing hydrogen is provided. This medium comprises solid boronoxide and compounds closely related to it such as orthoboric acid,metaboric acid, hydrated boric acid, and disodium borohydrate. Inaccordance with some embodiments, the medium can be modified by theinclusion of various alkali metal dopants such as lithium. Hydrogensorbs to the compounds comprising the medium with a heat of adsorptionin the range of about 9 kJ/mol to about 13 kJ/mol. This hydrogen sorbingor occlusion is substantially physisorptive in nature, but may includechemisorptive sorbing as well.

The heat of adsorption of hydrogen on the boron oxide medium issubstantially higher than that of hydrogen on carbon. From this higherheat of absorption, it follows that at a given temperature within anoperating temperature range of about 50 to about 200 K, and with resultsnormalized to respective surface area, a boron oxide-based medium sorbsmore hydrogen than a carbon-based medium. Expressed in another way,boron-oxide based media can be loaded with hydrogen and hold it at atemperature range significantly higher than that at which carbon-basedmedia operates. Hydrogen sorption and desorption are also pressuredependent. Thus, at pressures in the range of 1 bar, boron oxide mediasorb hydrogen at about twice the level of carbon, when data arenormalized to surface area. The pressure range of 1 bar to 30 bar is adesirable pressure range for the operation of hydrogen storage vessels.At a pressure of 20 bar, for example, whereas temperature drivendesorption of hydrogen from carbon occurs over a range of about 50 K toabout 150 K, temperature driven desorption from boron oxide and relatedcompounds occurs over a range from about 100 K to about 200 K.

Further features and advantages of the present invention will becomeapparent to those of ordinary skill in the art in view of the detaileddescription of preferred embodiments below, when considered togetherwith the attached drawings and claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The foregoing aspects and others will be readily appreciated by theskilled artisan from the following description of illustrativeembodiments when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 is a graphic representation of the computational approach todetermination of the heat of adsorption, or sorbing energy, between agas and a solid.

FIG. 2 shows temperature-driven desorption of hydrogen, at 20 bar, froma medium with the heat of adsorption of carbon (about 5 kJ/mol) and froma medium with the heat of adsorption of boron oxide (about 10 kJ/mol).

FIG. 3 shows a BO₃ triangle, a planar boron oxide structure with a boronatom situated centrally within three oxygen atoms.

FIG. 4 shows a boroxol ring, a six-membered boron oxide ring structureconsisting of three boron atoms and three oxygen atoms.

FIG. 5 shows a perspective view of two BO₃ triangles connected by anoxygen atom common to both triangles.

FIG. 6 shows a perspective view of two connected boroxol ringstructures, one ring with each boron atom triangularly bound to threeoxygen atoms and a second ring containing a boron atom with a four-foldoxygen coordination.

FIG. 7 shows a perspective view of a local pore structure within arandom boron oxide network.

FIG. 8 shows a perspective view of a local pore structure within arandom boron oxide network that has been doped with a metal atom.

FIG. 9 is a schematic representation of amorphous boron oxide glass.Boron oxide glass is constructed from constituent BO₃ triangles whichform boroxol rings, networks, and pores or voids of varying size.

FIG. 10 is a transmission electron micrograph of boron oxide particulatesample prepared by rapidly condensing boron oxide vapor diluted in acarrier gas.

FIG. 11 is a scanning electron micrograph of a boron oxide particulatesample prepared by reacting diborane gas, highly diluted in a neutralgas, with oxygen.

FIG. 12 is a scanning electron micrograph of a boron oxide sampleprepared by freeze-drying.

FIG. 13 shows a comparison of hydrogen uptake by carbon and boron oxide(mol/m²) at 77 K, as a function of pressure, over a range of 0.1 to 1.2bar.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Storage of Hydrogen by Host Media and the Heat of Adsorption

Adsorption of gas on solid media occurs through both physical andchemical means. The physical interaction, or physisorption, involvesweak bonds, such as van der Waals interaction, between an adsorbate suchas hydrogen gas and the host medium; there is no chemical bond involvedin this form of adsorption. Chemical interaction, or chemisorption, bycontrast, involves the stronger interaction of chemical bonding betweenan adsorbing gas and the host medium. There are also clear differencesin the energy of activation between these two forms of adsorption;chemisorption has a high activation energy, and is essentiallyadiabatically irreversible, thus making desorption a slow process.Physisorption, in contrast, has a very low, if not immeasurableactivation energy; it is thus highly reversible, and desorption is fast.The sorbing of hydrogen on boron oxide is considered to be substantiallyby physisorption, although some degree of chemisorption is alsopossible. Further, to define terms used in this disclosure, sorption isa term that embraces both adsorption and absorption. Adsorption refersto interaction between gas and the surfaces of solids; absorption refersto interaction between gas and the bulk of solids. Thus, the sorbing ofhydrogen on boron oxide is considered to be substantially an adsorptiveprocess, occurring on gas-exposed surfaces, but a degree of diffusioninto bulk composition and absorption therein is also possible.

Two major operating features characterize hydrogen storage media: (1)the total hydrogen storage capacity (ratio of the weight of hydrogenstored to the weight of storage medium) and (2) the temperature andpressure ranges at which hydrogen is adsorbed and desorbed. Totalhydrogen storage capacity is primarily a function of the surface area ofthe medium to which the gas has access, and is thus a propertysubstantially associated with the method of material preparation. Thetotal surface area of a solid, in spite of an overall unity, can besuperficially recognized as facing the exterior of the solid, or beinginternal, within the bounds of the solid. External surfaces arerelatively easily defined by the geometry of particles; internalsurfaces are more complex and more generally defined in a functionalsense. Pores and interconnected networks only act as a surface orpassage way if the gas has access to them. In spite of the complexity ofdefining surface area geometrically, it is appreciated as a substantialdeterminant of gas sorbing capacity, and is generally determined by thelevel of nitrogen adsorption, as measured by the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller(BET) approach. The broad variety of carbonaceous materials that havebeen developed have achieved specific surface areas in the range ofabout 3,000 m²/g.

The other feature of gas sorbing that underlies the temperature andpressure-dependent behavior aspect of gas sorption on media is the heatof adsorption (kJ/mol adsorbed gas); an analogous term is the sorbingenergy, eV. The heat of adsorption is substantially a property specificto the chemical entities involved, the gas being bound or adsorbed andthe hosting or adsorbing medium, although the methods of materialpreparation can have some effect. Generally, gas is bound, or occluded,by materials at low temperature, and released at high temperature.Materials with low heats of adsorption release bound gas at lowtemperature, while materials with high heats of adsorption retain boundgas at higher temperatures before the gas is released. Values reportedfor the heat of adsorption of hydrogen on carbon are in the range ofabout 5 kJ/mol; values in the range of 4–7 kJ/mol have been reported(Benard and Chahine 2001, Langmuir 17, 1950). Many metals, such asplatinum, have relatively high heats of adsorption, but they are heavy,and their density limits the ability to prepare materials with a highsurface area per unit weight. Embodiments of the present inventionprovide materials, boron oxide and other related compounds, which havesignificantly higher heats of adsorption than carbon. Further, boronoxide and related compounds comprise atoms which are light, and are thusappropriate for developing materials with high surface area per unitweight.

Thus while adsorption and desorption are processes responsive to bothtemperature and pressure, and while the dynamics of that relationshipare determined by the heat of adsorption, in a practical sense theoperational factor more affected by the heat of adsorption istemperature. This follows from a consideration of the larger system ofwhich a storage medium is a part. In general, it is desirable andpractical for a hydrogen adsorptive storage system in a vehicle to be alow pressure system compared to the conditions for compressed gasstorage. Thus, when the present invention is described in terms of thepressure ranges at which it operates, these conditions adhere tosystem-related factors, not to limitations or constraints of the storagemedium. Low pressure vessels have considerable advantages over highpressure vessels with regard to safety and acceptable shapes, and thecomplexity of the surrounding engineering. In general, low pressurevessels may be considered those which operate at pressures between 1 barand 30 bar, and there remains a considerable latitude even above 30 barwhich is considered low pressure compared to the operating range of truehigh pressure vessels (5,000–10000 p.s.i., or between about 350 andabout 700 bar). An advantage offered by a storage medium with a heat ofadsorption of about 10 kJ/mol, in contrast to carbon (with a heat ofadsorption of about 5 kJ/mol) applies broadly to low pressure hydrogenstorage systems, and allows an operating temperature range higher thanthat of carbon by about 50 K degrees.

In order to estimate the sorbing energy of hydrogen on boron oxide andrelated materials, pseudopotential density functional calculations(Hohenberg and Kohn 1964, Phys. Rev. 136, B863; and Kohn and Sham 1965,Phys. Rev. 140 A113) were performed. Computation by these methods canpredict key physical properties of materials such as crystal structure,electronic and optical properties, transport properties, and gasadsorption kinetics. The focus of these computations was to determinethe heat of adsorption, or sorbing energy, which is denoted by thelowest point on plots of heat of adsorption as a function of distancebetween the solid host atoms and adsorbing hydrogen gas. The totalenergy was calculated through the application of the ab initiopseudopotential method (Cohen 1982, Physica Scripta T1; 5; Kleinman andBylander 1982, Phys. Rev. Lett. 48, 1425N; Payne et al. 1992, Reviews ofModern Physics, 64, 1045; and Troullier and Martins 1991, Phys. Rev. B43, 1993,) with atomic orbital basis (Sánchez-et al. 1997, Int. J.Quantum Chem. 65, 453 and Artacho et al. 2000, Phys. Status Solidi B217, 335). The exchange-correlation interaction of electrons was treatedwith a generalized gradient approximation approach (Perdew and Burke1996, Int. J. Quantum Chem. S57, 309; and Perdew et al. 1996, Phys. Rev.Lett. 77, 3865) that is known to be well suited for the accuratedescription of interaction between gases and solids.

These pseudopotential density functional computations were performed asfollows: To simulate hydrogen sorption on B₂O₃ glass and metaboric acid,a large section of the adsorbent host material was computationallydepicted as an infinitely repeated lattice. The total energy of thecombined system (adsorbents and H₂) was then calculated using varyingdistances between H₂ and the adsorbents. At each step of the totalenergy calculation, an accounting was made of the full range ofstructural relaxations under the constraint of a fixed distance betweenH₂ and adsorbents. Once a set of values for the total energy as afunction of the distance between H₂ and adsorbents was calculated, thedata were fit with a curve appropriate for describing van der Waalsinteractions. The minimum total energy, as well as the distance at whichthe minimum occurs, were then obtained by application of Lenard-Jonesand Morse curve-fitting computations.

FIG. 1 graphically represents a general computational approach todetermination of the heat of adsorption, or sorbing energy, between anadsorbing gas and a host solid (Prutton 1994, Introduction to SurfacePhysics, Clarendon Press, Oxford; Jhi et al 2000, Physical ReviewLetters 85, 1710) that was applied specifically to characterization ofthe interaction of hydrogen gas and boron oxide as described in thisdisclosure. The heat of adsorption is shown as a function of thedistance between the gas and the solid: the X axis represents thedistance between the gas molecule and the host solid to which the gas issorbing, and the Y axis represents the energy (E) associated with thatdistance. Zero on the Y axis is defined as the value of the energyasymptotically approached when the distance is at infinity; the curvemay or may not cross a zero value for Y at a small distance. The lowestpoint, E_(b), on the energy curve represents the value of the sorbingenergy, or heat of adsorption of the most stable distance between thebound gas and the host medium. The difference between E_(b) and theenergy at the theoretical distance of zero, E_(d), represents anapproximation of the energy required for diffusion of the gas into thehost solid.

The course of gas diffusion into two example solids are shown in FIG. 1by the solid and dotted lines, respectively, connecting the most stabledistance and the zero distance point. The higher the value of E_(d), thegreater is the threshold or activation energy required for inwarddiffusion. The dotted line (example 1) represents a case in which thethreshold energy is of such large magnitude that diffusion is precluded,as would be the case if pore sizes in the host solid were too small toallow entry of gas. The solid line (example 2), by contrast, representsa case where the gas is able to diffuse into the solid. Computationssuch as these were used in the determination of atomic-scale pore sizeoptimal for hydrogen diffusion and adsorption, as described below.

By these pseudopotential density function computational methods, theheats of absorption of compounds in the boron oxide genus vary fromabout 10 to about 13 kJ/mol, as shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Sorbing of Hydrogen on host Boron Oxide Species: Computed Valuesfor Binding Energy or Heat of Adsorption Thermodynamic Sorbing ValuesChemical Species Binding Energy Heat of Adsorption B₂O₃ 0.13 eV 13kJ/mol HBO₂ 0.13 eV 13 kJ/mol H₃BO₃ 0.10 eV 10 kJ/mol Graphite (forreference) 0.06 eV  5 kJ/mol

These heat of adsorption values for hydrogen on boron oxides species areabout twice that of the heat of adsorption of hydrogen on graphite oractivated carbon (about 5 kJ/mol, included in Table 1 for reference).These values, computed as described above, for carbon's heat ofadsorption agree well with the results of Benard and Chahine (Langmuir2001,17, 1950). Finally, these computed values for boron's heat ofadsorption are corroborated by actual measurements of the sorbing energyof hydrogen, as described in detail in the examples section, below.

The presence of atomic-scale pores in activated carbon and othermaterials is well known (Dacey 1967, in The Solid-Gas Interface, ed. E.Alison Flood, Marcel Dekker, N.Y., Volume II, Chapter 34), and it isthus reasonable to believe that boron oxide can be prepared by methodswhich yield such pores as well. Computational methods have thus alsobeen applied to a determination of the pore size optimal for hydrogenadsorbing. The adsorbing simulations were run on circular boron oxiderings of varying size, with inner intra-atomic diameters that definepores sizes of 0.34 nm, 0.46 nm, and 0.65 nm. The activation energyrequired to reduce the distance between the gas and the structure(represented by the portion of the curves to the left of the minimum, asshown in FIG. 1) is very large for the small pore sizes, but nearlynon-existent at 0.65 nm. The high activation energy indicates that thepore is too small to provide hydrogen access into it. The heat ofadsorption of hydrogen sorbing to these structures, once the 0.65 nmdiameter threshold is attained, is equal to or greater than the heat ofadsorption calculated for a planar boroxol ring lattice. Thesecomputations demonstrate that pores with diameters of 0.65 nm or more,within a host medium comprising boron oxide and its derivatives, providean effective passageway for hydrogen access into such a medium.

Adsorption and desorption processes are governed by both temperature andpressure. Low temperature and high pressure favor adsorption of gas;high temperature and low pressure favor desorption. The heat ofadsorption correlates to the temperature range at which gas sorbs anddesorbs at a given pressure. The fact that the adsorbing energy ofhydrogen on boron oxide compounds is significantly greater than theadsorbing energy of hydrogen on graphite means that at given pressureand temperature, B₂O₃ will adsorb more hydrogen per unit surface areathan graphite or activated carbon.

A pressure range which commercially practical for hydrogen storage tankscontaining hydrogen-adsorptive materials is in the range of about 1 toabout 30 bar, more generally in the range of about 3 bar to about 20bar. Based on computational determination of the heat of adsorption andexperimental corroboration of the large difference hydrogen sorbing toboron oxide vs. carbon (see the experimental example, below), thesorbing of hydrogen to carbon and boron oxide at 20 bar over a range oftemperatures was compared using the Langmuir model. The results of thecomputation are shown in FIG. 2 which depicts two curves of hydrogenstorage as a function of temperature: one representing hydrogen bound tocarbon with a heat of adsorption in the range of approximately 5–6kJ/mol (labeled as 5 kJ/mol), and one representing hydrogen bound toboron oxide with a heat of adsorption in the range of approximately10–12 kJ/mol (labeled as 10 kJ/mol). It is clear from these curves thathydrogen, bound to carbon (heat of adsorption of approximately 5 kJ/mol)at low temperature, begins to desorb at about 50 K, and is substantiallydesorbed at about 150 K. On the other hand, hydrogen bound to boronoxide (heat of adsorption of approximately 10 kJ/mol), remains bounduntil the temperature reaches 100 K, and is released progressively untilthe temperature reaches about 200 K, at which point desorption issubstantially complete. In effect, boron oxide's value for the heat ofadsorption of hydrogen, being approximately two-fold higher than that ofcarbon, increases the operating temperature range for heat-drivendesorption by about 50 degrees.

Composition of Storage Medium

Boron oxide (B₂O₃) occurs predominantly as a glass; the terms “glass” or“glassy state” refer to solid matter that has an amorphous structure,without long-range periodic order of atoms. A glass is generally createdby cooling a glass-forming liquid to a temperature below its freezingpoint, which is also known as the glass transition temperature. Theamorphous nature of glass allows for the presence of local areas oforder or flat structures within the larger unordered solid. Thedifference between amorphous glass and ordered crystalline solids isfundamental and underlies easily observable differences in physicalproperties, such as behavior at the melting point, and the ways in whichthe solids break when deformation stress exceeds elasticity limits. Theamorphous nature of glass also allows for the easy incorporation ofother additives or so-called doping elements, non-boron oxide relatedcompounds which can contribute to structural features withinpreparations of glass.

The structure of pure boron oxide includes basic units, higher orderunits, and local regions of order within the encompassing amorphouscomposition. FIG. 3. depicts the most basic unit of structure, theplanar BO₃ triangle, wherein a boron atom 1 (dark circles representboron atoms) is located centrally within three triangularly situatedoxygen atoms 2 (open circles represent oxygen atoms). FIG. 4 depicts thenext most basic unit of structure, the six-membered or hexagonal boroxolring, composed of three BO₃ triangles. In this depiction it can be seenthat each boron atom 1 connects to three oxygen atoms 2 (as in the BO₃triangle of FIG. 1), and each oxygen atom bridges two boron atoms, eachboron atom representing the center of a BO₃ triangle. Just as the BO3triangles combine to form hexagonal boroxol rings, so do the ringsinterconnect to create latticed honey comb-like networks ofinterconnected hexagonal rings. These various structural configurationsthus represent local regions of order in the amorphous glassycomposition.

Various structural configurations contribute to the predominantlyamorphous nature of boron oxide glass, as depicted in FIGS. 5–8. FIG. 5focuses on the free rotation around an oxygen atom 2.1 in the triangularconfiguration, which can permit the formation of both ordered anddisordered networks. FIG. 6 shows a variation in the boron-oxygenbonding configuration in the context of two connected boroxol rings inwhich four oxygen atoms sorb to a single boron 1.1, thus creating aso-called fourfold coordinated structure. The planar aspect of thetriangular configuration of the BO₃ triangle is distorted in this case,and there is further structural variation possible through the rotationof the boroxol rings with respect to each other around this bondconnecting an oxygen atom and boron atom 1.1.

FIGS. 7 and 8 depict various atomic-scale porous structural featuresthat can occur in glassy boron oxide, depending on variables in theglass forming process and on the possible presence of additives ordoping elements or compounds. FIG. 7 depicts two boroxol rings, forexample, which have conjoined to create an irregular ring with a largecentral hole or atomic-scale pore 6 by breaking and reforming bonds ofthe boroxol rings. Mixing of metals, such as alkali metals, into theglass composition can also create new structural units and porestructures. FIG. 8 depicts an example in which boron oxide has beendoped with lithium oxide 3, which has brought about the transformationof a triangular unit BO₃ into a four-fold coordinated unit BO₄ aroundthe boron atom 1.2. The formation of these atormic-scale units enhancesthe connectivity of pore networks (Varsamis et al. 2000, Physical ReviewB vol. 65, 104203).

FIG. 9 schematically depicts how BO₃ triangles 4 and boroxol rings 5assemble into various regular lattice or network structures that existas localized regions within a larger amorphous or random networkstructure, and which can create pores or voids 6 of various sizes. Thestructural background is one in which BO₃ triangles conjoin withsubstantial randomness, but in a manner which is consistent with thebonding rules that have each oxygen bridging two boron atoms.

Addition of water to boron oxide (B₂O₃) creates boric acid (H₃BO₃, knownmore specifically as orthoboric acid) and a structural intermediatebetween these two species, metaboric acid (HBO₂), in proportions thatare responsive to local conditions of temperature and the amount ofwater. Boric acid and metaboric acid, however, are not glassy; boricacid exists in a layered crystalline form similar to that of graphite.In boric acid and metaboric acid, hydrogen forms a hydrogen bond withoxygen. The local chemical properties for hydrogen adsorption onmetaboric acid (HBO₂) or orthoboric acid (H₃BO₃), however, are verysimilar to that of boron oxide.

As water is removed from boric acid or meta-boric acid by heating orevaporation, boron oxide is reformed. Thus, a composition of boron oxidecan vary smoothly from B₂O₃ to H₃BO₃ depending on water content.Finally, in the presence of sodium ion, species such as hydrateddisodium boric acid (Na: B₂O₃.H₂O) form readily. From these variousclose relationships, it can be seen that boron oxide, orthoboric acid,and metaboric acid collectively represent a genus of compoundscomprising boron and oxygen. Further included within this genus arevarious hydrated forms, such as hydrated boron oxide and common salts,such as sodium borohydrate. Other boron oxide-derived compounds includethe following: Mg₃(BO₃)₂, Mg₂B₂O₅, NaBO₂, KBO₂, (Ca(BO₂)₂, NaBO₃.4H₂O),CaB(OH)SiO₄, BPO₄, NaBSi₃O₈, ZnB₆O₁₃, K₅B₅O₈.4H₂O, KB₅O₈,CaB₃O₃(OH)₅.H₂O, CaB₆O₁₁.5H₂O, Na₂B₄O₇.10H₂O.

Boron oxide-based compositions can also be modified by doping, or theadmixing in of other additive elements or molecules. The purpose of suchadmixing would be two fold, to confer a higher heat of hydrogenadsorption onto the medium and to confer other more favorable physicalproperties within the boron oxide based-medium as a whole. Suchdesirable properties include, for example, mechanical strength andresilience of the solid, or, for another example, the creation ofirregularities, pores, and networks, which effectively contribute to anincrease in gas-accessible surface area, and hence, increases inhydrogen sorbing capacity. Additionally, the mixing in of other elementsor molecules could create compositions which are simply more amenable tovarious preparative methods which, for example, would allow the creationof high surface area, or high porosity media.

Compounds to be mixed, or doped into the boron oxide-based compositioninclude such oxides as H₃PO₄, SiO₂, Al₂O₃, Li₂O, MgO, Na₂O, K₂O, BeO,CaO, and SrO. Activated itself, is also a potentially useful adjunct toa boron oxide-based medium. Finally, another approach to the applicationof boron oxide-based medium for hydrogen storage is to use it as acoating over another host structure, one which itself offersadvantageous structural features, such as mechanical strength or a highsurface area configuration, but does not necessarily have thesignificant advantage offered by the high heat of adsorption offered byboron oxide-based media. Such host structures could be, for example,activated graphite, or other micro- or meso-, or macro-porousstructures, as defined by the International Union of Pure and AppliedChemistry (IUPAC).

From the above description of the inventive boron oxide-based medium forhydrogen storage, its composition and its heat of adsorption which issuperior to that of carbon, it can be appreciated that such a storagemedium can be prepared by methods that create material with high surfacearea and/or high porosity, with extensive pores and internally networkedsurfaces. Such a material, by virtue of its surface availability tohydrogen, provides high capacity hydrogen storage. Such a material, byvirtue of its high heat of adsorption, allows the high capacity featureto be operable at high temperature ranges. Finally, such material can bedisposed within a container apparatus, with means for controlling theinternal temperature, and means providing for the controlled entry andexit of hydrogen. Such a container apparatus has been described indetail, in U.S. application Ser. No. 10/167,946 of Bradley et al.,entitled “Hydrogen Storage and Supply System”, U.S. Pat. No. 6,748,748.

While the heat of desorption determines the temperature range withinwhich temperature-driven desorption can operate, the total hydrogenstorage capacity in terms of weight per cent (the ratio of the weight ofhydrogen stored per unit weight of the storage medium) is substantiallya function of the available surface area of the medium per unit weight.Surface area is generally understood by those practiced in the art to besurface are as determined by the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller approach whichmakes use of nitrogen gas as a standard adsorbate (see Example 1,below). Surfaces available for gas storage include both exposed externalsurfaces and the internal surfaces of pores and networks, provided thatthe gas has access to these surfaces. Compositional forms that providehigh surface area include nanometer-scale particles and more macro-scalestructures that are highly porous. Various physical and chemical methodsfor preparing high surface area or highly porous materials are wellknown in the art. Milling is the primary method for obtaining smallparticulate preparations, and can produce particles with diameters ofless than 100 nm.

Several chemical approaches to high surface area material preparationare well known, including chemical vapor deposition, templating,precipitation, freeze drying or supercritical drying, and etching.Chemical vapor deposition produces material porous at atomic scalethrough thermally induced chemical decomposition of gases and depositionof newly constituted material of high surface area. Templating is aprocess whereby microporous, mesoporous, or macroporous materials areshaped with sacrificial materials which are ultimately discarded; insome cases solid material which is converted to liquid is used as thesacrificial template. Precipitation is a process whereby nano-scaleparticles are precipitated from super saturated solutions.Supercritical- or freeze drying is a process which creates so-calledaerogels, that retain the structural network of a gel as the containedsolvent is removed. Finally, etching is a process that enhances surfacearea by removal of material in such a way as to create a roughersurface.

Boron oxide based materials with a high surface can also be synthesizedby coating or grafting a high surface area material with a very thinlayer (continuous or discontinuous) of boron oxide derivatives.Materials that could be coated include activated graphite, micro- andmesoporous materials. The coating could be achieved directly from dryinga solution of the boron oxide derivative containing a suspension of thehigh surface area material. Another method includes the grafting of ahigh surface area material with a boron alcoholate, such as B(OR)₃,where R is an organic group, followed by calcination of the resultingmaterial in order to permanently fix or graft the boron oxide group inplace (A. Davidson, Curr. Op. Coll. Interface Science 2002, 7, 92).

The presence of atomic-scale pores in boron oxide-based media isbeneficial for providing pores and networks, both for surface areaoffered, and for allowing effective diffusion of hydrogen into the boronoxide based media. Computational measurements of the heat of adsorptionof hydrogen onto boron oxide pore structures demonstrate that a poresize of less than 0.65 nm precludes hydrogen entry, whereas those with alarger diameter provide free accessibility for hydrogen passage, as wellas a heat of adsorption that is equal to or greater than a planarstructure. Preferred embodiments of boron oxide-based media for hydrogenstorage thus contain a plurality of pores of about 0.65 nm or larger.

Embodiments of this invention include high surface area material:materials with a surface area in the range of 900 m²/g to 4000 m²/g aredesirable; preferable are those with a surface area in the range of 3000m²/g to 4000 m²/g, and more preferable is a surface area in the range of3000 m²/g to 4000 m²/g. Most preferable would be materials with asurface area greater than 4000 m²/g. Embodiments of this invention alsoinclude highly porous material: preferably with a porosity in the rangeof 10% to 90%, more preferably in the range of 20% to 80%, and mostpreferably in the range of 30% to 70%.

This invention and its embodiments are described above, and in theexample below, in sufficient detail to provide those skilled in the artwith information relevant to apply the novel principles and to constructand use such specialized components as are required. However, it is tobe understood that the invention can be carried out by differentequipment, materials and systems, and that various modifications, bothas to the equipment and operating procedures, can be accomplishedwithout departing from the scope of the invention itself.

EXAMPLES Boron Oxide Sample Preparation by Various Methods andMeasurement of the Heat of Adsorption

Boron oxide particles were synthesized by rapidly condensing vapors ofboron oxide diluted in argon, a neutral carrier gas as follows: Boronoxide was placed on a platinum crucible situated within a boron nitridetube. The boron nitride tube, itself, was enclosed within an aluminatube. The alumina tube (containing the inner boron nitride tube andcrucible within), which can be understood collectively as a housing inwhich to hold boron oxide while being heated, were placed at the centerof a tubular oven. The oven was heated rapidly to a temperature in therange of 1,100–1,500° C., thereby creating a vapor pressure of B₂O₃ inthe range 1×10⁻⁶–2×10⁻³ bar, respectively. Once the oven reached thepreset temperature, a flow of neutral gas (argon) into the oven wasinitiated. The gaseous outflow stream from the oven was captured andcollected as particles on a filter; FIG. 10 is a transmissionelectronmicrograph of the resulting sample. In a typical procedure usinga 1-inch alumina tube, a temperature of 1450° C. and an argon flow rateof 1,000 standard cubic centimeters/min (scem), particles having adiameter of about 15 nm were collected, thus creating material with asurface area in the range of 80–100 m²/g.

Boron oxide particles were also synthesized using controlled oxidationof boron molecular precursors. In this approach, diborane, highlydiluted in a neutral gas, was reacted with oxygen. The neutral gas,argon, and diborane were mixed in line, and injected into the reactionchamber. Oxygen was separately injected into the reaction chamber. Carewas taken to ensure that the diborane was not heated prior to itsinjection into the reaction chamber, as it easily decomposes into higherboranes. The downstream gaseous exhaust of the reaction chamber,including particulate boron oxide, was collected on a filter; FIG. 11 isa scanning electron-micrograph of such a sample. This reaction producessome water; to substantially avoid condensation and subsequent formationof HBO₂ or H₃BO₃ within the boron oxide, the exhaust stream and filterwere kept warm. Particles having a diameter of 10 nm were obtained,thereby creating material with a surface area in the range of 120–150m²/g.

Higher dilution of the molecular precursor during this procedure leadsto the creation of 5 nm diameter particles, thus creating material witha surface area of 250–300 m²/g. In this preparative approach, in orderto avoid large consumption of neutral gas, the diluting gas can berecirculated, after removal of water. Other molecular precursors includetrialkylborons, such as (CH₃)₃B, trialkyl borate (such as (CH₃O)₃B), orany other organoboron precursor whose oxidation induces the formation ofboron oxide. With these precursors, carbon dioxide is produced, andpreferably would be stripped from the diluting gas if recirculation isincluded in the process.

Another synthetic pathway is represented by dissolving boron oxide orboric acid in water and freeze-drying, or supercritical drying, thesolution thus obtained. FIG. 12 is a scanning electron micrograph of asample of boron oxide prepared by freeze-drying. Inclusion of anadditive within the solution such as Mg(OH)₂ or NaOH is often helpfultoward the goal of achieving high surface area preparations.Supercritical drying processes can yield materials with surface areasranging upward to at least about 900 m²/g. These higher surface arearesults can be achieved by: (1) obtaining a gel based on the hydrolysisof a boron alkoxide (either alone or mixed with other metal alkoxides)dissolved in an alcohol, such as methanol or ethanol; or (2) bysupercritical drying the gel using supercritical carbon dioxide. Thelatter step can be performed using standard commercial supercriticaldrying equipment.

Pertinent to these various synthetic approaches is the fact that highsurface area boron oxide is very hygroscopic. Therefore, in order toavoid material hydration, it is preferable that material handling takeplace either in dry air or in a dry box. Finally, the particulatepreparations can include populations of particles partially bound toeach other in clusters.

Adsorption isotherms of boron oxide samples prepared by chemical vapordeposition were measured using a commercial porosimeter (MicromeriticsASAP 2010). Samples were heated in vacuum to degas them and to drive outwater. Samples were heated at 90° C. for two hours, at 150° C. for eighthours, and at 200° C. for eight hours. After treatment, the gas uptakefor the samples was measured as pressure-adsorption isotherms infixed-point baths at a variety of temperatures. High purity (99.9996%)nitrogen was used for Brunauer-Emmett Teller surface area analysis, andhigh purity hydrogen was used for storage measurements.

FIG. 13 shows the measured hydrogen uptake (mol/m²) for samples ofcarbon and boron oxide at 77 K, normalized to the surface areas of therespective samples, at pressures ranging from 0.01 bar to 1.2 bar. Thegreater heat of adsorption of boron oxide manifests itself in asignificantly greater hydrogen sorption. These data are corroborated byother studies which have compared the quantity of hydrogen uptake bycarbon and boron oxide at 1 atmosphere at temperatures ranging from 80 Kto 175 K. At these higher temperatures, boron oxide adsorbs hydrogen atsignificantly high levels that does carbon.

The application of this inventive hydrogen sorbing medium is likely tobe in fuel tanks with a holding pressure of about 1 bar to about 30 bar,more generally in the range of about 3 bar to about 20 bar. As describedabove, and as depicted in FIG. 2, a comparison of Langmuir calculationsfor hydrogen adsorbing to medium with a heat of adsorption of between 5and 6 kJ/mol (carbon) versus with a medium with a heat of adsorption ofbetween 9 and 13 kJ/mol (boron oxide) manifests itself in a temperaturedesorption range for boron oxide which is 50 degrees higher that that ofcarbon.

1. A medium for storing hydrogen comprising a boron oxide hydrates ofthe general formula B₂O₃.nH2O, wherein n is not less than one, admixedwith at least one oxide selected from the group consisting of Li₂O, MgO,Na₂O, K₂O, BeO, CaO, and SrO.
 2. The medium for storing hydrogen asdescribed in claim 1, wherein the boron oxide hydrate is selected fromthe group consisting of orthoboric acid, metaboric acid, hydrated boricacid, and disodium borohydrate.
 3. The medium for storing hydrogen asdescribed in claim 1, wherein the medium further comprises at least oneadditive selected from the group consisting of H₃PO₄, SiO₂, and Al₂O₃.4. The medium for storing hydrogen as described in claim 1, wherein themedium is configured to store hydrogen substantially by physisorption.5. The medium for storing hydrogen as described in claim 1, wherein themedium has a plurality of pores, the pores having a diameter of at leastabout 0.65 nm.
 6. The medium for storing hydrogen as described in claim1, wherein the medium has a surface area to mass ratio of at least about150 m²/g.
 7. The medium for storing hydrogen as described in claim 1,wherein the medium has a surface area to mass ratio of at least about900 m²/g.
 8. The medium for storing hydrogen as described in claim 1,wherein the medium is in particulate form.
 9. The medium for storinghydrogen as described in claim 1, wherein the medium is configured tostore hydrogen with a heat of hydrogen adsorption of at least about 9kJ/mol.
 10. The medium for storing hydrogen as described in claim 1,wherein at a pressure of between about 1 bar and about 30 bar, themedium substantially adsorbs hydrogen at temperatures which rangebetween about 20 K and about 200 K.
 11. The medium for storing hydrogenas described in claim 1, further comprising hydrogen adsorbed to themedium.
 12. A medium for hydrogen storage and release comprising: atleast one compound selected from the group consisting of boron oxide,orthoboric acid, metaboric acid, hydrated boric acid and disodiumborohydrate; and hydrogen, wherein the hydrogen is bound to the at leastone compound selected from the group consisting of boron oxide,orthoboric acid, metaboric acid, hydrated boric acid and disodiumborohydrate.
 13. A composition comprising: hydrogen; and at least onecompound selected from the group consisting of boron oxide, orthoboricacid, metaboric acid, hydrated boric acid, disodium borohydrate, whereinhydrogen is adsorbed to the at least one compound.
 14. A method forstoring hydrogen comprising: providing a storage medium, the storagemedium comprising at least one compound selected from the groupconsisting of boron oxide, orthoboric acid, metaboric acid, hydratedboric acid, and disodium borohydrate; providing hydrogen to be stored;and introducing hydrogen into the storage medium, whereupon at leastsome of the hydrogen adsorbs to the medium.
 15. A method for storing andreleasing hydrogen comprising: providing a storage medium, the storagemedium comprising at least one compound selected from the groupconsisting of boron oxide, orthoboric acid, metaboric acid, hydratedboric acid and disodium borohydrate; providing hydrogen to be stored;holding the storage medium within a temperature range between about 20 Kand about 100 K, and at a pressure of between about 1 bar and about 30bar; introducing the hydrogen to the storage medium, whereupon a leastsome of the hydrogen adsorbs to the medium; holding the adsorbedhydrogen in the storage medium; and releasing at least some of theadsorbed hydrogen from the storage medium by increasing the temperatureof the medium to a range between about 100 K and about 200 K, whereuponthe hydrogen desorbs from the medium.
 16. A method for storing hydrogenwithin an apparatus and releasing the hydrogen from the apparatus, themethod comprising: providing a storage apparatus, the storage apparatuscomprising an interior and an entry for hydrogen and an exit forhydrogen; providing a storage medium disposed within the interior of theapparatus, the medium comprising at least one compound selected from thegroup consisting of boron oxide orthoboric acid, metaboric acid,hydrated boric acid, and disodium borohydrate; providing hydrogen to bestored; introducing hydrogen into the interior of the storage apparatusthrough the entry, whereupon at least some of the hydrogen adsorbs tothe medium disposed therein; storing the adsorbed hydrogen within thestorage apparatus; warming the interior of the storage apparatus,thereby desorbing at least some of the adsorbed hydrogen from thestorage medium; and removing desorbed hydrogen from the storageapparatus by allowing the desorbed hydrogen to escape through the exit.